tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-49257636938809335332024-03-13T07:36:17.500+07:00Air Compressors InfoGuides for energy saving of compressed air system... From theory background to real application for most of the factoriesUnknownnoreply@blogger.comBlogger57125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4925763693880933533.post-39698040084635141762012-11-13T12:43:00.001+07:002012-11-13T12:43:22.494+07:00Energy Saving in Industrial Processes Using Modern Data Acquisition<br />
One of the most effective industrial processes improving technologies are model predictive control, neuron networks, and soft sensors technologies. Technologically advanced manufacturing companies, which use innovative processes management and monitoring systems, achieve 20-30% lower production costs than those of similar plants in which such systems are not used. The idea of this work is to evaluate the potential of cognitive industrial processes management systems in order to optimize the company's activities in increasing <b><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/search?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&index=books&keywords=compressed%20air%20energy%20saving&linkCode=ur2&tag=air-compressors-info-20" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">energy efficiency</a></b> and resource conservation. For this purpose are used advanced methods of data analysis and collection, monitoring, control systems.<br />
<br />
<b>Process optimization contains following steps:</b><br />
Data aquision can be realized using different techniques. The most used method for data aquision is to use hardware sensors. This is the simplest way to monitor process if there is no any monitoring system. If data aquision system (example SCADA) is already installed, it is possible to use SCADA acquired data or, if SCADA does not collect all required data, it is possible to combine SCADA acquired data with data collected with additional sensors.<br />
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Aquised data usually needs to be transferred for further processing. There are two major kinds of data transfer types: wired, wireless and software. Usually data transfer speed is not important for aquision systems, because there is no large amount of data involved. Wire and wireless data transfer is used to transfer data from hardware sensors. Both raw and processed data can be transferred for collection. It is possible to use different types of data transfer methods in one system. Software links are used to collect data from other, already installed systems, such as SCADA, using standard data transfer protocols, such as OPC and DATA socket.<br />
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For data processing mostly standard data processing software is used. The most popular software is MatLab, other software solutions are Profisignal, LabView and custom made software created for specific task.<br />
<br />
<b>There are 2 main algorithm types to control complex systems.</b><br />
1. Model predictive control.<br />
2. Advanced process control.<br />
<br />
Model predictive control (MPC) systems gathers information about process, learns typical sequence of changing parameters, predicts them, and changes system parameters in order to keep system output smooth. MPC are used in systems that monitor and controls few variables.<br />
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Advanced process control (APC) controls complex processes with many monitored variables and controlled outputs. Compared to MPC, APC involves much more data processing.<br />
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In this paper we improve efficiency of industrial processes in pulp paper manufacturer by improving compressed air system in product packing line. This system contains 3 air compressors and 217 users (actuators, valves etc.). Pressure in system is set to be between 6,5 and 7,9 bar. Average pressure in the system - 7,2 bar. Pressure deviation in system is ± 0,7 bar. The most pressure demanding users require air pressure of 6 bar.<br />
<br />
<b>Efficiency improving contains the following steps:</b><br />
1. Analyzing existing system.<br />
2. Monitor compressed air system using data logger.<br />
3. Analyzing data from data logger.<br />
4. Upgrading compressed air system with additional controllers, sensors (if necessary), and creating APC.<br />
5. Creating algorithm for APC.<br />
<br />
for temporary industrial processes monitoring. Collected data is used to find weak points in compressed air system make a necessary system upgrades list and create efficient control algorithm for controller that will be installed in next stage. Test results showed that all system output was averaging at 39,2% of its maximum productivity.<br />
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Pressures in system above 6 bars are unnecessarily high. It increases amount of leaked air from system, pneumatic system components wear and energy consumption.<br />
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<b>To improve compressed air system the following improvements were made:</b><br />
1. Install to system APC controller.<br />
2. Pressure and flow sensors installation.<br />
3. Air compressors controllers installation.<br />
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Installing APC controller to compressed air system will give more flexibility of controlling all system parameters and increase efficiently.<br />
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In the original system air compressors had no direct control, they could be only turned on at 100% output or off. We added to system controllers that can make air compressor work between 20%-100% of total output. This update will increase control flexibility and efficiency of compressed air system.<br />
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For first upgraded system test run controller and added sensors were enabled, compressed air pump controllers were disabled, system pressure was set to be at 7,2 bar with possible variations of ± 0,1 bar, so deviation is 7 times lower than in original system, while target of system pressure left the same as in base setup. System performed well and compared to original system, 2,1% electricity savings were achieved.<br />
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On the second test run air compressor controllers were enabled, system pressure set to be 6,25 bar with deviation of ±0,1 bar. Test results are very stable and with power savings of 15,1 % compared with original system.<br />
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Completed system is very compact. It is estimated that various system components lifetime will increase by 5-10 %. System using APC controller will save 15 % energy and 5-10 % in hardware wear. Allso APC systems can be maintained remotely so they save money on servicing costs. Total system savings are at least 25 %. Designed and installed APC system will buy of in less than 6 months.<br />
<br />
Company INOBALT specializes in test and measurement systems and equipments for industrial use. Our product range covers everything from transducer to the full size production tests solutions. We design and manufacture customized test and measurement systems. Our services include automation design, manufacturing and commissioning. INOBALT's measurement solutions are mainly used in product development, research and maintenance. INOBALT has a wide selection of devices from transducer to the high-end analyzers. Typical measurable values are temperature, vibration, pressure, rotation, force, torque, strain and noise. Systems are widely used in vehicle- and defense industry, universities, research institutes, electronics and in machine building applications.<br />
<br />
For more information please see: http://www.inobalt.com<br />
<br />
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<br />
The trouble with power tools is safety. On site the plethora of cables is always an issue and at home, many a sturdy DIYer has been taken by surprise at just how powerful a power tool can be.<br />
<br />
So what else is there?<br />
<br />
<b><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/search?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&index=aps&keywords=compressed%20air%20tool&linkCode=ur2&tag=air-compressors-info-20" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Air tools</a></b>, that's the answer. Tools that use compressed air as their power source. Tools that do not wrap the site in cables, or pose health hazards through overheating and frayed cables, tools that provide the same level of power and efficiency every time you need them.<br />
<br />
Safe, compliant, and easy to use, compresses air equipment tools meet all you're on site or at home requirements.<br />
<br />
And whatever you are doing, there is a compresses air equipment tool that meets your needs. If you need high power for your workshop, then there is a range of industrial lubricated and non-lubricated compressors available for the task. These systems will help with everything from tyre changing machines in a mechanics shop through to compressing oxygen for scuba tanks or hydrogen and other gases for chemical storage work.<br />
<br />
Save space on site with a portable compressor that can power multiple tools at the same time at pressures from 7 to 24 bar (101 to 350 psi). These compressors can power a whole range of contractor tools from rock drilling equipment through paving and concrete breakers to backfill rammers and internal concrete vibrators.<br />
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And then there is a whole plethora of standard site and home tools that can be powered by compressed air. Everything from portable drills and grinders through nibblers, routers and saws and onto impact wrenches, riveting hammers and screwdrivers.<br />
<br />
Whatever the job and, more importantly, whatever the size of the job, there is a compressed air equipment tool that meets the requirements and, just as importantly, the health and safety specification, of the job at hand. And, of course, you don't need to plug the compressor in, it runs from its own engines - perfect for situations where there is no electrical power on site.<br />
<br />
And the uses spread far beyond the construction and DIY industries. There are compressed air tools that will work in the mining, chemical and plastics industries, as well as well as arenas such as agriculture, health, food and environmental. Literally whatever you want to do, compressed air tools will help you to do it.<br />
<br />
Michael P Richards is writing on behalf of Excel Compressors, specialists in Compressed Air Equipment<br />
<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><i>The first air compressors created were not machines</i></span>, like many people may think. In fact they were actually people themselves. Humans used their lungs to blow oxygen onto fires, thus creating the first air compressors. The air compressors we know today are both stronger and more efficient. A healthy pair of human lungs can produce.02 to.08 bar, where one bar equals 14.5 pounds per square inch. Around 3,000 BC metallurgy had made its day view, and humans had turned over a new leaf in air compressors.<br />
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As metals were melted down, higher temperatures were needed, which lead to a need for more powerful compressors. Hand held bellows were soon created and in the 1,500 BC era foot bellows began to be produced. For 2,000 years bellows driven by foot were the primary choice when it came to compressed air. Soon blast furnaces were developed, which lead to <b>John Smeaton</b>'s design of a water wheel-driven blowing cylinder in 1762. Hand held and foot operated bellows become obsolete, and the new Smeaton design was the blower system of choice.<br />
<br />
Later inventor <b>John Wilkinson</b> came into the picture and created a much more efficient blasting machine. Invented in England during the year 1776, this new machine was an early prototype for all the mechanical compressors to come. Many of these new air compressors were used in mining and tunnel building. Particularly in the 1857 construction of the tunnel rail system that connected Italy to France. They were able to move large volumes of fresh air in to the tunnels for ventilation.<br />
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As word of tunnel development with compressed air machines spread international intrigue was sparked. Inventors soon realized compressed air could be used in many more industries than just mining. Leading this advance was Austrian engineer <b>Viktor Popp</b>, who created compressor plant in Paris. In 1888 Mr. Popp installed a 1,500 kW compressor plant and by the year 1891 the plant had grown to 18,000 kW.<br />
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As years passed more and more patents were handed out to inventors who were tweaking the designs of the original machines. Soon compressed air machines were being used in a number of different applications all around the world. Their versatility, reliability, and all around usability make them popular among many industries. Frequently air compressors are used in combination with hydraulics and electricity. The two compliment each other and have changed the way compressed air is used in industries around the world.<br />
<br />
Nick Jakubowski<br />
<br />
http://www.arizonapneumatic.com<br />
http://www.nevadapneumatic.com<br />
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<b>Air compressors</b> are essential mechanical equipment for homeowners (air conditioners and refrigerators), commercial businesses, jet engines, refining industries, manufacturing and automotive industries. In reality, air compressors have been utilized in industries in more than a century. It is a multi-talented device utilized to supply the compressed air and/or power in a specified space. It is being used in any purpose which requires air in decreased volume or increased force.<br />
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They are are obtainable in several types, which are produced to meet dissimilar requirements. Each type may vary in chilling method, compression stages, power source and lubrication. The following are three main types of air compressors:<br />
<br />
<u><b>Reciprocating (Piston) Air Compressor</b></u> - uses piston in compressing air and keeping in storage tank. Based on the quantity of compression stages, this type may be single-stage or double-stage. In a single stage, one piston is utilized in compressing air, whereas in the double-stage, there are two pistons used in air compression.<br />
<b><u><br /></u></b><br />
<b><u>Rotary Air Compressor</u></b> - this is the same as the positive displacement configuration of reciprocating compressor. In this type, two rotating helical mated bolts are being used rather than pistons. Since the screws rotate towards one another, air is compacted and pushed in the storage tank.<br />
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<u><b>Centrifugal Air Compressor </b></u>- also called dynamic compressor is appropriate when the need for compacted air is high. In this type, high speed spinning impeller increases speed of air, which is intended towards a diffuser which converts the speed of air into force. This compressor needs more energy to manipulate than the two compressors.<br />
The device consists of two main components - the compressing mechanism and power source. The compressing device may be piston, vane or rotating impeller, whereas, the power comes from the electric motor or some other sources of energy. The compressing mechanism, aids in compacting atmospheric air by means of energy from the source of power.<br />
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The fundamental working principle of air compressor is to compact atmospheric air, which is utilized as needed. In the course, atmospheric air draws in by intake valve; more air is pulled in a narrow space automatically by piston, vane or impeller. Since the quantity of pulled atmospheric air is added in the storage tank, the pressure is automatically raised. In simpler language, atmospheric or free air is packed together after decreasing its volume and increasing its force in same period of time. There is force setting handle which can be maneuvered per requirement of the operator. When the force increases to<br />
<br />
Highest force setting in the tank or receiver, the pressure button shuts up the intakes of air into the compressor. When the compacted air is utilized, the level of the pressure falls. As the force drops to a low down pressure setting, the force button is switched on, hence permitting the intake air in the atmosphere. Thus, the sequence continues in the air compressor.<br />
<br />
Air Compressor is consists of two main components - the compressing mechanism and power source. For more Info, visit us at: http://AirCompressor.org/<br />
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Modern time is the time of electronic appliances and gadgets. In order to assure their long term use, they should not only be used with much care but also be cleaned in the best way to guarantee permanent usage. Compressed air can is a can that is used to remove the dust and dirt which settles down into closed and open areas of any type of machines and devices. The can contains gasses which have been compressed in a way that they turn into liquid. The liquid, then comes out of the can which has a nozzle to permit it passing out, and reaches out even for the hard to reach places to clean the surface of electric appliances.<br />
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It is an ideal choice to clean your equipment with cans rather than with water. Most of this electric equipment is so sensitive that if cleaned by using water, they can damage the tools and equipment. Most of these cans are available in packages which include several accessories such as refill, which will match the size of the can you are buying, nozzles and disposable dusters. Make sure that the dusters you are receiving with your purchase should have durable valves. In order to save your environment, make sure that 100% ozone friendly cans are bought and used by you.<br />
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Ideally, valves that come with the cans should rotate as much as to 360 degree at all the sides. This will assure that you can spray on all the hard to reach areas and even small hidden corners that otherwise go neglected. A nozzle is also must to check when buying your can. The nozzle will help you to spray easily to all the corners. Valves are removable in some cases while in some others they may not be. If they are removable, it is better because you can change them according to your needs and purpose. Old valves will always be needed to remove because they will be jammed at some point of use with stuck gasses in the middle, in that case a valve change will be required for sure.<br />
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You can read more reviews at compressedaircan.net, If you want to buy coleman air compressor, you can read reviews at my website.<br />
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Although it is perhaps not one of the better known 'tools of the trade', it may come as a surprise to many people, how wide the use of the industrial air compressor is in a wide variety of industries.<br />
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From the health sector to mining, industrial air compressors are playing an increasingly important role in industry. Whilst this may surprise some, there are a good many reasons why this is the case.<br />
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<b>Compressed air </b>is easy to store and is usually contained in large tanks, taking up little room in a factory or yard. Compressed air can be especially useful, and important, in an environment that is potentially hazardous; a good example of this is in the mining industry, where the use of electrical machinery could ignite explosive gases, causing injury or even loss of life. As they expel only pure compressed air, there are no toxic fumes or other chemicals to be concerned about either, which is one of the more obvious appeals to the health sector.<br />
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Before buying an industrial air compressor, it is important to consider your actual needs, as buying too large a compressor can be an expensive move. There are a wide variety of sizes to choose from so you should select the one most appropriate to your industry, bearing in mind the amount of usage it will get.<br />
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We have covered a few examples above, of industries in which compressed air may be used, but in general terms only. Below are a few examples of actual uses of compressed air which will help to emphasise the important role it has to play in many different types of industry.<br />
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<b>Construction</b><br />
Compressed air is used for many on site demolition tools and also for compacting concrete. It is also often used to convey bricks and stones from factories.<br />
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<b>Mining</b><br />
Industrial air compressors are used to power drilling machinery such as industrial sized hammers and chisels. It is also used in the mining ventilation system, an obviously important aspect of the industry.<br />
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<b>Agriculture</b><br />
Compressed air is often used to transport food and grain to the silos, in which it is stored, and also provides ventilation in industrial glasshouses.<br />
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<b>Health Industry</b><br />
Many of us will be familiar with the sound of the dentist's drill; a good example of its use in the dentistry trade. It is also used in hospitals for the extraction of anaesthetic gases and also respiration systems.<br />
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<b>Traffic Industry</b><br />
Most of us will probably be aware of the role that compressed air plays in heavy goods vehicle brakes, but it is also widely used in signal systems and rail barriers too.<br />
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Micheal Richards is writing on behalf of Excel Compressors, specialists in Compressed Air Equipment and Industrial Air Compressors.<br />
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<b>Basic Components of Compressors</b><br />
compressors are similar to small internal combustion engines since they consist of a piston, a cylinder, and a connecting rod that is attached to a crankshaft. The crankshaft is driven externally, either by an electric or gas motor to rotate the shaft and move the piston up or down. The top of the piston cylinder has a valve head with two ports to control air flow into and out of the internal chamber. Each port contains a valve flap that can be open or closed. Usually, a holding tank is attached to the compressor to maintain air pressure within the tank to a pre-set level.<br />
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<b>Generating Air Pressure</b><br />
An inlet in one port allows outside air under atmospheric pressure to enter. When the piston moves down, a vacuum is created in the cylinder which opens a valve flap and allows air to enter the piston cylinder. When the piston cycles up, it compresses the air in the cylinder. This closes the inlet flap, while at the same time opening the discharge flap. When the discharge flap is opened, it propels air into the external air tank. With each piston cycle more air enters the tank, building up pressure within it. The air tank is fitted with a gauge apparatus that turns the motor on or off to maintain a safe pressure.<br />
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<b>Primary Applications and Uses</b><br />
Many manufacturing plants use air compressors in automation and packaging equipment as well as conveyor lines and pneumatic presses. Most mechanical robots on assembly lines use compressors to place parts and weld them together. Some manufacturers use compressed gases for processing operations such as oxidation, filtration, aeration, or refrigeration. The food and beverage industry uses compressors for bottling and vacuum packaging of food items. The construction industry uses air compressors to drive tools such as jack hammers and pneumatic drills. Regardless of their specific application, all industrial compressors maximise power efficiency and reduce costs.<br />
<br />
Mithul Mistry is writing on behalf of Excel Compressors, specialists in Bambi Air Compressors and Used Air Compressors.<br />
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To ensure compressed air safety when personnel are handling compressed air cylinders in the workplace (or in fact at home) all components of compressed air systems should be inspected regularly by qualified and trained employees. Operators carrying out the safety tests should individually take note of: the air receivers, the air distributions lines, the pressure regulation devices, the compressor operation and compressed Air Equipment Maintenance.<br />
<br />
Compressed air safety should be taken very seriously due to the fact that a compressed gas cylinder accident can be fatal for personnel. While it is perfectly safe to work with if the operator knows what they are doing, it can conversely be very dangerous if handled by someone who has not had the correct training or is not furnished with sufficient information.<br />
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In order to guard against accidents in the workplace and to ensure a happy and healthy working environment, following are typical safety considerations that should be observed:<br />
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Compressed air should never be used to clean off clothes, workbenches, cabs of work vehicles, air filters or workshop floors. It is not a toy and can cause grievous bodily harm and operators messing around with the it without due consideration and using the air for games should not be tolerated ever. Compressed air should never be aimed or pointed at another person. When disconnecting airlines, turn off the air (never kink the hose) and bleed off the air gradually and aim the stream away from people.<br />
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Compressors and air powered tools require regular inspection and maintenance, including: daily checks for oil leaks and correct fitting of guards; daily checks of tools for damage to hoses and dirty, inoperable or damaged fittings and connections; verification of correct operation of pressure relief valves; periodic inspection of the pressure vessels (as prescribed in state legislation)<br />
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Storage of the air hose is also very important in compressed gas cylinder safety. The air hoses should be kept off the floor, where they pose a trip hazard and can potentially be damaged by regular foot traffic, dropped tools and heavy trucks rolling over it. Keep sharp tools away from the air hose as much as possible. Coil the air hose sensibly without kinks and hang it over a broad support, not over a hook, nail, or angle iron, when not in use. To avoid potential physical damage, use the lowest pressure that will do the job. Air pressure in excess of 30 lbs. can penetrate the skin to cause massive internal damage, it can burst internal organs, it can blow an eye from its socket and/ or rupture an ear drum (these are just a few of the unfortunate potential consequences when very high air pressure is mishandled).<br />
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Due to the above points made, MlOSHA's General Provisions Standard for compressed air safety which states "air pressure at the discharge end of a portable air blow gun or portable air hose should be less than 30 lbs. per square inch gauge when dead-ended," should be observed unless under very specific circumstances. Remember to keep these safety measures in mind the next time you work with it.<br />
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Compression of air generates a lot of heat. The air is warmer after compression. Decompression requires heat. If no extra heat is added, the air will be much colder after decompression. If the heat generated during compression can be stored and used again during decompression, the efficiency of the storage improves considerably.<br />
<br />
There are three ways in which a CAES system can deal with the heat. Air storage can be <b>adiabatic</b>, <b>diabatic</b>, or <b>isothermic</b>:<br />
<ul><li><i>Adiabatic storage</i> retains the heat produced by compression and returns it to the air when the air is expanded to generate power. This is a subject of ongoing study, with no utility scale plants as of 2010. Its theoretical efficiency approaches 100% for large and/or rapidly cycled devices and/or perfect thermal insulation, but in practice round trip efficiency is expected to be 70%. Heat can be stored in a solid such as concrete or stone, or more likely in a fluid such as hot oil (up to 300 °C) or molten salt solutions (600 °C).</li>
</ul><ul><li><i>Diabatic storage</i> dissipates the extra heat with intercoolers (thus approaching isothermal compression) into the atmosphere as waste. Upon removal from storage, the air must be re-heated prior to expansion in the turbine to power a generator which can be accomplished with a natural gas fired burner for utility grade storage or with a heated metal mass. The lost heat degrades efficiency, but this approach is simpler and is thus far the only system which has been implemented commercially. The McIntosh, Alabama CAES plant requires 2.5 MJ of electricity and 1.2 MJ lower heating value (LHV) of gas for each megajoule of energy output. A General Electric 7FA 2x1 combined cycle plant, one of the most efficient natural gas plants in operation, uses 6.6 MJ (LHV) of gas per kW–h generated, a 54% thermal efficiency comparable to the McIntosh 6.8 MJ, at 53% thermal efficiency.</li>
</ul><ul><li><i>Isothermal compression and expansion</i> approaches attempt to maintain operating temperature by constant heat exchange to the environment. They are only practical for low power levels, without very effective heat exchangers. The theoretical efficiency of isothermal energy storage approaches 100% for small and/or slowly cycled devices and/or perfect heat transfer to the environment. In practice neither of these perfect thermodynamic cycles are obtainable, as some heat losses are unavoidable.</li>
</ul>A different, highly efficient arrangement, which fits neatly into none of the above categories, uses high, medium and low pressure pistons in series, with each stage followed by an airblast venturi pump that draws ambient air over an air-to-air (or air-to-seawater) heat exchanger between each expansion stage. Early compressed air torpedo designs used a similar approach, substituting seawater for air. The venturi warms the exhaust of the preceding stage and admits this preheated air to the following stage. This approach was widely adopted in various compressed air vehicles such as H. K. Porter, Inc's mining locomotives and trams. Here the heat of compression is effectively stored in the atmosphere (or sea) and returned later on.<br />
<br />
Compression can be done with electrically powered turbo-compressors and expansion with turbo 'expanders' or air engines driving electrical generators to produce electricity.<br />
<br />
The storage vessel is often an underground cavern created by solution mining (salt is dissolved in water for extraction) or by utilizing an abandoned mine. Plants operate on a daily cycle, charging at night and discharging during the day.<br />
<br />
Compressed air energy storage can also be employed on a smaller scale such as exploited by air cars and air-driven locomotives, and also by the use of high-strength carbon-fiber air storage tanks.<br />
<br />
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressed_air_energy_storage<div class="blogger-post-footer"><br/><br/>
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Water jackets and inter-cooling can be used to keep the temperature down. These have the effect of reducing the compression index (n) to something less than 1.4.<br />
<br />
When air is compressed to a pressure to exceeding about 4 bar it is usual to compress it in stages, with intercooling between each stage. This considerably reduces the total amount of work required on the air.<br />
For two stages compressing, the air is compressed in the first (low pressure) stage adiabatically from p1 to p2 and then enters the intercooler where it is cooled down to the original temperature. Its volume is thereby reduced to V2 which is on the isothermal line. This volume of air now enters the high pressure cylinder, and is compressed to the final pressure and volume (p3 and V3). The law of compression is assumed to be the same for both compressors, namely:<br />
<br />
<b>p V<sup>n</sup> = C</b><br />
<br />
The pressure of intercooling to give the minimum of work done is when:<br />
<b> p2 = sqrt(p1 x p3)</b><br />
<br />
<br />
Compression may be done in three or more stages to reduce the amount of work. Multistage compression approaches isothermal compression as the number of stages is increased.<div class="blogger-post-footer"><br/><br/>
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<br />
<b><a href="http://www.amazon.com/Gender-Boyles-Gases-Elizabeth-Potter/dp/0253214556?ie=UTF8&tag=air-compressors-info-20&link_code=btl&camp=213689&creative=392969" target="_blank">Boyle’s law</a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="http://www.assoc-amazon.com/e/ir?t=air-compressors-info-20&l=btl&camp=213689&creative=392969&o=1&a=0253214556" style="border: medium none ! important; margin: 0px ! important; padding: 0px ! important;" width="1" /></b> states that: The absolute pressure of a gas varies inversely as the volume, provided the temperature remains constant.<br />
<br />
<b>p V = a constant</b><br />
<br />
where: p = pressure in bar, V = volume in m<sup>3</sup>.<br />
<br />
<b>Charles’ law</b> states that the volume of a gas under constant pressure, or the pressure of a gas under constant volume, varies as the absolute temperature. Therefore V varies as T, and p varies as T where T is the absolute temperature.<br />
<br />
If the two laws are combined, we get:<br />
<br />
<b>p V / T = constant</b><br />
<br />
The constant is usually denoted by R and therefore:<br />
<b>p V = R T</b><br />
<br />
It can be shown that the value of the constant R applicable to air is 287.0 J/(kg K).<br />
The relation between the pressure and volume of air <i><u>during its expansion and compression</u></i> may be represented by:<br />
<br />
<b>p V<sup>n</sup> = R T</b><br />
<br />
where ‘n’ has value which <i><u>depends on the addition or subtraction of heat during the process</u></i>.<br />
When the temperature remains constant during compression or expansion they is said to be <b>isothermal</b> and the value of ‘n’ is one. In order to obtain pure isothermal compression it would be necessary to remove heat from the air at the same rate as heat is produced by the work done on the gas. When a gas expands and when no heat passes during expansion or contraction they is said to be <b>adiabatic</b>.<div class="blogger-post-footer"><br/><br/>
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<br />
Normally, the purpose of compressed air systems in the industrial sectors is to deliver the necessary volume of air at the required pressure and temperature to the correct places. Compressed air is used for operating pneumatic equipments, cleaning purposes, and other general services. This is accomplished by a distribution system consisting of pipes, valves and fittings. The Compressed Air pipe work is arranged in the form of ring mains with interconnections to points of end-users.<br />
<br />
Careful evaluation of existing compressed air systems can ensure against improper operation, and poor energy utilization. Alert design, operations, and maintenance personnel, with an awareness of energy management, can achieve significant savings in areas such as:<br />
<ul><li>Detection and elimination of leaks.</li>
<li>Reduction of friction losses and the associated pressure drops.</li>
<li>Application of new technology.</li>
</ul><div class="blogger-post-footer"><br/><br/>
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<br />
<u><b>Compressed Air Energy-Reduction Strategy</b></u><br />
<br />
<b>Project Goals and Implementation</b><br />
<br />
Following the IAC assessment, FUJIFILM’s maintenance team formulated project goals and an implementation plan that centered on the utilization of existing facility infrastructure and equipment. The team’s implementation strategy was divided into three phases and focused on increasing the system’s storage capacity to handle production peaks and valleys; lowering air compressor operating pressure; repairing system leaks; and ultimately, operating the facility with one compressor. The team’s strategy was also aided by the company’s closure of its Orange Park, Florida, operations. This facility housed a 75 horsepower (HP) air compressor, a dryer, and a receiver, which the Dayton facility incorporated into its efforts.<br />
<br />
Project success, then, depended on the accomplishment of four specific goals:<br />
<ul><li>To increase system redundancy, therefore increasing<br />
system reliability</li>
<li>To reduce system maintenance costs</li>
<li>To reduce overall facility energy use</li>
<li>To eliminate the use of nitrogen when compressed air<br />
systems are down.</li>
</ul><u><b>Phase I</b></u><br />
Phase I was justified using maintenance-cost-reduction estimates. Labor was billed as a maintenance expense to the existing budget. During this phase, the facility installed Orange Park’s 75 HP air compressor in Building 5, a receiver in Building 6, and a 2-inch airline from Building 5 to Building 6. The 60 HP air compressor in Building 6 was then shutdown for repair and established as a backup unit. The building’s piping was also combined with its heat installation. Phase I was completed in May 2008.<br />
<br />
<u><b>Phase II</b></u><br />
The Dayton facility justified Phase II to FUJIFILM Corporate by utilizing total project energy-saving estimates. During this phase, piping was installed from Building 5 to Buildings 1 and 6, and an additional receiver was installed in Building 1. The existing 50 HP air compressor and dryer in Building 1 were<br />
shutdown for maintenance and repair and established as a backup unit. This established the 75 HP air compressor in Building 5 as the facility’s central unit. Phase II was completed in March 2009.<br />
<br />
<u><b>Phase III</b></u><br />
During Phase III, the maintenance team developed and implemented a Leak Detection and Repair (LDAR) program (completed in the fall of 2009), and developed a quarterly preventative maintenance program to repair system leaks and reduce the amount of compressed air losses. Additionally, the facility gathered data that indicated a 2 PSIG drop in pressure resulted in a 1% reduction in cost. The team reduced compressor set pressure to 105 PSIG, which resulted in POU delivery of 98 PSIG. <br />
<br />
Source: <a href="http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/saveenergynow/pdfs/fujifilm_case_study.pdf">http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/saveenergynow/pdfs/fujifilm_case_study.pdf</a><div class="blogger-post-footer"><br/><br/>
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<br />
<u><b>The Energy Situation</b></u><br />
The Dayton facility was experiencing excessive downtime due to chronic air compressor failures and significant inefficiencies throughout its compressed air system. In 2007 alone, system operating costs totaled over $45,000, with maintenance and repair costs exceeding $17,000. The problems FUJIFILM was experiencing were also causing frequent interruptions in the facility’s production operations. Due to the nature of these operations, the facility could not afford to experience the downtime required to complete compressed air system maintenance. The facility was depending on a backup operating system that relied on the utilization of onsite nitrogen, which is normally reserved for processing flammable materials. While maintenance staff were certified in both quality and environmental-management systems—ISO 9001 and 14001 standards, respectively—they lacked the parts and system expertise needed to effectively support the<br />
compressed air generating equipment.<br />
<br />
<u><b>Additional Costs Incurred with Old Compressed Air Scheme:</b></u><br />
<ul><li>Maintenance = $1,296</li>
<li>Nitrogen Backup = $7,921</li>
<li>Repair = $7,877</li>
<li><b>TOTAL = $17,094</b></li>
</ul>Furthermore, the frequency of equipment failures indicated inherent and systemic inefficiencies, including unutilized capacity generation and overstated requirements. These issues led the facility Maintenance Manager, Manuel Calero, and his team to partner with the Tennessee Technology University IAC, sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Industrial Technologies Program (ITP), to conduct an overarching assessment of the Dayton facility’s compressed air system. ITP’s IAC program provides eligible small- and mid-sized manufacturing plants with no-cost energy assessments. In 2008, a team of engineering and technology students and faculty from Tennessee Technology University visited the Dayton plant to conduct the compressed air system assessment to identify potential savings opportunities.<br />
<br />
<u><b>Developing a Baseline</b></u><br />
The IAC and in-house maintenance team’s first step was to baseline the system’s demand-side air requirements to determine the system’s actual efficiency. The site’s original compressed air system scheme consisted of two Ingersoll Rand air compressors, located in Buildings 1 and 6.1 Compressed air in these buildings was used in a variety of processing operations that facilitated material delivery through a system of pipelines. Major uses of the air included the operation of pneumatic control devices, such as actuator valves and cylinders, and liquid transfers via air diaphragm pumps to appropriate storage tanks. These transfer rates<br />
were critical to maintaining quality in both the process and product. To establish the baseline, the IAC team calculated the cost of air production; gathered initial measurements of energy, flow, pressure, and leak load; and estimated energy consumption, which was then correlated to the appropriate production levels. The team also conducted energy surveys with the assistance of Ingersoll Rand. This effort required connecting amp and flow meters to each compressor for five days. This allowed the facility to accurately assess energy versus standard cubic feet per minute generated and used. Results of the assessment showed that both facility compressors were set to run at 120 pounds per square inch (PSIG), but were only delivering between 90 to 95 PSIG at point of use (POU), and were, at times, dropping as low as 80 PSIG. Additional findings demonstrated that higher air use was occurring during transfers—as opposed to reactions—and that the system’s air use was cyclical, depending on production. It was also confirmed that Production Line 1 had<br />
excess capacity. The compressed air distribution system also contained significant leaks. A concurrent review of existing system dryers indicated subpar performance and explained undue levels of moisture in the system. Most importantly, though, the data indicated that the Dayton facility could be operated using only one compressor. <br />
<br />
Read more details in [Compressed Air System Energy-Reduction Case Study (Part 2)]<div class="blogger-post-footer"><br/><br/>
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<br />
<u><b>Primary and Secondary Storage</b></u><br />
<br />
One or more compressed air applications having large, intermittent air demands can cause severe, dynamic <i>pressure fluctuations</i> in the whole system, with some essential points of use experiencing inadequate pressure. Such demand is often of short duration; properly sized primary and secondary storage can supply the needs of the intermittent demand. The time interval between the demand events is adequate to restore the storage receiver pressure without adding compressor capacity. <b>Primary storage receivers</b> can:<br />
<ul><li>Prevent frequent loading and unloading of compressors</li>
<li>Collect condensate, which may be carried over from the aftercooler and moisture separator</li>
<li>Provide some radiant cooling to reduce moisture content and air dryer load if located in a cool location and installed upstream of the dryer</li>
<li>Provide dampening of pressure pulsations from reciprocating compressors.<br />
Secondary storage receivers can be used to:</li>
<li>Supplement the primary receivers to stabilize system pressure and thus keep unneeded compressors from starting</li>
<li>Supply adequate compressed air for a single intermittent event of a known duration.</li>
</ul>The <b>secondary receiver</b> should be located as close to the end use as is practicable and its pressure rating must be at least equal to that of the primary receiver(s).<br />
<br />
Pressure fluctuations may also occur due to inadequate storage or because the system pressure is at or near the lowest level of the compressor pressure control band. If a large, intermittent demand event occurs when the pressure is at or near the lowest level in the control band, the pressure in the distribution piping falls even further, affecting critical end-use applications. In such a case, the installation of a relatively small receiver with a check valve upstream of the application causing the demand event may address the problem. <br />
<br />
<u><b>Pressure/Flow Controllers</b></u><br />
<br />
A Pressure/Flow Controller (P/FC) is a device that serves to separate the supply side of a compressed air system from that system’s demand side. P/FCs use the principle of operating compressors to fi ll and store air in receivers at higher pressures. P/FCs then reduce the pressure and supply it to the system at the pressure required by that system’s compressed air applications. P/FCs work with pilot-operated regulators or electronic controls to sense and monitor the system’s pressure downstream of the valves. Controlled pressure and adequate upstream storage are critical to satisfactory performance. P/FCs normally respond rapidly to demand fl uctuations and maintain system pressure within a narrow band. For peak demand events, suffi cient storage is necessary to release the stored air quickly into the system to maintain required downstream pressures within an acceptable tolerance. With proper design and system controls, storage can be used to meet air demand and reduce compressor run time.<br />
<br />
<u><b>Dedicated Compressors</b></u><br />
<br />
Applications some distance from the main compressor supply or those with pressure requirements that differ from the main system requirements may be served by a dedicated compressor. Small or unit type compressors (generally up to 10 hp maximum) can be very suitable for an application whose pressure level is higher than that of the plant’s other applications. Generally, such compressors can be located close to a point of use, avoiding lengthy piping runs and pressure drops; are adaptable to a wide range of conditions such as temperature, altitude, and humidity; and do not require separate cooling systems.<br />
<br />
Source: <a href="http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air8.pdf">http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air8.pdf</a><div class="blogger-post-footer"><br/><br/>
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Excess compressed air loss during condensate removal can occur due to several factors. Following shows several condensate removal methods and the characteristics of each method.<br />
<br />
<u>Manual operation:</u><br />
<ul><li>Operators manually open valves to discharge condensate.</li>
<li> Depends on people opening valves at the appropriate time for the necessary amount of time.</li>
<li>Often leads to excess loss because air escapes when the valves are left open to drain the condensate.</li>
</ul><u>Level-operated mechanical float traps:</u> <br />
<ul><li>Use a float connected by linkage to a drain valve that opens when an upper setting is reached and closes when the drain is emptied.</li>
<li>Require considerable maintenance.</li>
<li>Are prone to blockage from sediment in condensate.</li>
<li>Are prone to getting stuck in open position (leak excess air) and in the closed position (does not allow condensate to be drained).</li>
<li>Inverted bucket traps may require less maintenance, but will waste air if the condensate rate is inadequate to maintain the liquid level in the trap.</li>
<li>Most suited for a fully-attended powerhouse operation with scheduled maintenance.</li>
</ul><u>Solenoid-operated drain valves:</u> <br />
<ul><li>Have timing devices that can be set to open for specified amounts of time at pre-set adjustable intervals.</li>
<li>The period during which the valve is open may not be long enough for adequate drainage of accumulated condensate.</li>
<li>The valve will operate even if little or no condensate is present, resulting in air loss.</li>
<li>Require strainers to reduce contaminants, which can block the inlet and discharge ports of these devices.</li>
</ul><u>Zero-loss traps:</u> <br />
<ul><li>Have a float or level sensor that operates an electric solenoid or ball valve to maintain the condensate level in the reservoir below the high level point, or a float activates a pneumatic signal to an air cylinder to open a ball valve through a linkage to expel the condensate in the reservoir to the low level point.</li>
<li>Wastes no air.</li>
<li>Considered very reliable.</li>
<li>Reservoir needs to be drained often to prevent the accumulation of contaminants.</li>
</ul><u><b>Other Points to Consider</b></u><br />
<br />
Drain the condensate often and in smaller quantities rather than less frequently and in larger quantities. Consider oversized condensate treatment equipment to handle unexpected lubricant loading and to reduce maintenance. All drain traps should be inspected periodically, with parts repaired or replaced as required. If replacement is the decision, consider using zero loss drain traps.<br />
<br />
Source: <a href="http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air13.pdf">http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air13.pdf</a><div class="blogger-post-footer"><br/><br/>
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<br />
Like all electro-mechanical equipment, industrial compressed air systems require periodic maintenance to operate at peak efficiency and minimize unscheduled downtime. Inadequate maintenance can increase energy consumption via lower compression efficiency, air leakage, or pressure variability. It also can lead to high operating temperatures, poor moisture control, excessive contamination, and unsafe working environments. Most issues are minor and can be corrected with simple adjustments, cleaning, part replacement, or elimination of adverse conditions. Compressed air system maintenance is similar to that performed on cars; filters and fluids are replaced, cooling water is inspected, belts are adjusted, and leaks are identified and repaired.<br />
<br />
A good example of excess costs from inadequate maintenance can be seen with pipeline filter elements. Dirty filters increase pressure drop, which decreases the efficiency of a compressor. For example, a compressed air system that is served by a 100-horsepower (hp) compressor operating continuously at a cost of $0.08/kilowatt-hour (kWh) has annual energy costs of $63,232. With a dirty coalescing filter (not changed at regular intervals), the pressure drop across the filter could increase to as much as 6 pounds per square inch (psi), vs. 2 psi when clean, resulting in a need for increased system pressure. The pressure drop of 4 psi above the normal drop of 2 psi accounts for 2% of the system’s annual compressed air energy costs, or $1,265 per year. A pressure differential gauge is recommended to monitor the condition of compressor inlet filters. A rule of thumb is that a pressure drop of 2 psi will reduce the capacity by 1%.<br />
<br />
All components in a compressed air system should be maintained in accordance with the manufacturers’ specifications. Manufacturers provide inspection, maintenance, and service schedules that should be strictly followed. Because the manufacturer-specified intervals are intended primarily to protect the equipment rather than optimize system efficiency, in many cases, it is advisable to perform maintenance on compressed air equipment more frequently.<br />
<br />
One way to tell if a compressed air system is well maintained and operating efficiently is to periodically baseline its power consumption, pressure, airfl ow, and temperature. If power use for a given pressure and flow rate increases, the system’s efficiency is declining. Baselining the system will also indicate whether the compressor is operating at full capacity, and if that capacity is decreasing over time. On new systems, specifications should be recorded when the system is fi rst installed and is operating properly.<br />
<br />
<u><b>Types of Maintenance</b></u><br />
<br />
Maintaining an air compressor system requires caring for the equipment, paying attention to changes and trends, and responding promptly to maintain operating reliability and effi ciency. To assure the maximum performance and service life of your compressor, a routine maintenance schedule should be developed. Time frames may need to be shortened in harsher environments. Proper maintenance requires daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, semi-annual, and annual procedures. Please refer to the Compressed Air System Best Practices Manual for the types of procedures that are relevant to the compressors and components in your system. Excellent maintenance is the key to good reliability of a compressed air system; reduced energy costs are an important and measurable by-product. The benefi ts of good maintenance far outweigh the costs and efforts involved. Good maintenance can save time, reduce operating costs, and improve plant manufacturing efficiency and product quality.<br />
<br />
Source: <a href="http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air6.pdf">http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air6.pdf</a><div class="blogger-post-footer"><br/><br/>
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Poor <b>air quality</b> can have a negative effect on production equipment and can increase energy consumption and maintenance needs. The quality of air produced should be guided by the quality required by the end-use equipment. The air quality level is a function of the levels of particulate, moisture, and lubricant contaminants that the end uses can tolerate. Such air quality levels should be determined before deciding whether the air needs additional treatment. Compressed air should be treated appropriately but not more than is required for the end-use application. The higher the quality, the more the air usually costs to produce (in terms of initial capital investment in equipment, energy consumption and maintenance).<br />
<br />
Once the true end-use air quality requirements have been determined, the proper air treatment equipment can be configured. Separators, filters, dryers and condensate drains are used to improve compressed air quality. Treatment equipment maintenance is critically important for sustaining the desired air quality levels.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><u><b>Grouping Equipment with Similar Air Quality Requirements</b></u></span><br />
One strategy to improve air quality is to group end uses having similar air quality requirements in reasonably close proximity and install the appropriate air treatment equipment to serve these end uses with a minimum of distribution piping. Some-times, grouping similar requirements of best quality air together is not always practical; if the requirement for this class is sufficiently high (70% or more of total), consider supplying the entire plant with this air quality level. If practical, separation of groups of end uses requiring similar pressure and air quality also allows some compressors and air treatment equipment to be located close to the end uses.<br />
<br />
<u><b>Filtration</b></u><br />
Through proper filtration, appropriate air quality levels can be achieved. Because some end uses may require a higher level of air quality than others, it may not be necessary to have the entire airflow filtered to the highest level of air quality. Filters cause pressure drop that increases as the elements become fouled. Filters should be rated for the maximum anticipated operating pressure, but should be sized for the maximum anticipated rate of flow at the anticipated minimum operating pressure. The three types of compressed air filters (particulate, coalescing, and adsorption) have different functions and must be selected for the appropriate application.<br />
<br />
<u><b>Dryers</b></u><br />
Compressed air dryers can be very effective at removing condensate from compressed air. Dryers are of three types: deliquescent, refrigerated, and desiccant. Deliquescent dryers provide a Pressure Dew Point (PDP) of 20°F lower than the dew point of the air entering them. Refrigerated dryers provide a PDP of between 35°F and 38°F and desiccant dryers can provide a PDP as low as -100°F. Dryers should be sized for the maximum anticipated rate of fl ow and must be matched to the air quality requirements. Overdrying wastes energy.<br />
<br />
<u><b>Separators</b></u><br />
Moisture separators and condensate traps are used to remove condensate from the air stream. Because the fi rst step in condensate removal is to separate it from the air stream, moisture separators should follow each intercooler and aftercooler.<br />
<br />
<u><b>Condensate Traps</b></u><br />
There are four main types of condensate drains: manual, level-operated mechanical (fl oat) traps, electrically-operated solenoid valves and zero-loss traps with reservoirs. Traps should allow removal of condensate, but not compressed air, and should not be left open.<br />
<br />
Source: <a href="http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air12.pdf">http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air12.pdf</a><div class="blogger-post-footer"><br/><br/>
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<br />
To ensure the efficiency of compressed air end-use applications, a number of steps should be taken:<br />
<ol><li>Review the <i>pressure level requirements</i> of the end-use applications. Those pressure level requirements should determine the system pressure level. Because there is often a substantial difference in air consumption and pressure levels required by similar tools available from different manufacturers, request exact figures from each manufacturer for the specific application. Do not confuse maximum allowable with required pressure.</li>
<li><i>Monitor the air pressure at the inlet</i> to the tool. Improperly-sized hoses, fittings and quick disconnects often result in large pressure drops. These drops require higher system pressures to compensate, thus wasting energy. Reduced inlet pressure at the tool reduces the output from the tool and, in some cases, may require a larger tool for the specified speed and torque.</li>
<li>Avoid the operation of any air tool at “<b>free speed</b>” with no load. Operating a tool this way will consume more air than a tool that has the load applied.</li>
<li>Check the useful life of each end-use application. A worn tool will often require higher pressure, consume excess compressed air, and can affect other operations in the immediate area.</li>
<li>Air tools should be lubricated as specified by the manufacturer, and the air going to all end uses should be free of condensate to maximize tool life and effectiveness.</li>
<li>End uses having similar air requirements of pressure and air quality may be grouped in reason-ably close proximity, allowing a minimum of distribution piping, air treatment, and controls.</li>
<li>Investigate and, if possible, reduce the highest point-of-use pressure requirements. Then, adjust the system pressure.</li>
<li>Investigate and replace inefficient end uses such as open blowing with efficient ones such as vortex nozzles.</li>
</ol><b><u>Case Study:</u> A New Compressed Air Application is Configured for Maximum Efficiency</b><br />
A large, custom printing company installed a more technologically-advanced printing machine that could increase the output of its existing units. However, the initial configuration of the new printing machine more than doubled the compressed air demand of the entire site. After a thorough review, the plant personnel realized that it would be more cost-effective for the new machines to be redesigned to consume less air at lower pressures than to increase compressor capacity at all of the company’s printing plants. Once the printing machines were reconfigured, the total air demand per printing machine was reduced from 27 standard cubic feet per minute (scfm) to 4.5 scfm and the need for 100 pounds per square inch gauge (psig) compressed air was eliminated, resulting in substantial avoided costs in energy and capital expenditures.<br />
<br />
Source: <a href="http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air10.pdf">http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air10.pdf</a><div class="blogger-post-footer"><br/><br/>
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<br />
<b>Potentially Inappropriate Uses could be replaced by following suggested alternatives:</b><br />
<ul><li>Clean-up, Drying, Process cooling: Low-pressure blowers, electric fans, brooms, nozzles</li>
<li>Sparging: Low-pressure blowers and mixers</li>
<li>Aspirating, Atomizing: Low-pressure blowers</li>
<li>Padding: Low to medium-pressure blowers</li>
<li>Vacuum generator: Dedicated vacuum pump or central vacuum system</li>
<li>Personnel cooling: Electric fans</li>
<li>Open-tube, compressed air-operated vortex coolers without thermostats: Air-to-air heat exchanger or air conditioner, add thermostats to vortex cooler</li>
<li>Air motor-driven mixer: Electric motor-driven mixer</li>
<li>Air-operated diaphragm pumps: Proper regulator and speed control; electric pump</li>
<li>Idle equipment (Equipment that is temporarily not in use during the production cycle.): Put an air-stop valve at the compressed air inlet</li>
<li>Abandoned equipment (Equipment that is no longer in use either due to a process change or malfunction.): Disconnect air supply to equipment</li>
</ul><u><b>Example</b></u><br />
The table below shows inappropriate uses of compressed air in an automobile assembly plant. The plant took several action steps identified in the table to eliminate or reduce these inappropriate uses. Peak flow is identified in cubic feet per minute (cfm).<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEid-5eLnGKVJsjZQpDl_P6jUXyw6kEm1qrUtU06_XrvEp71ixvgaAsUWeqBfX8Fs26G2dIRfLbSDlvZoeWjfyJ-8cQv4PqMrk8-uPqF7dyRkVcy7eK3SNbLN6-xqlxK3AZ0bRlDAAHyMOo/s1600/inappropriate-uses-of-compressed-air-example.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="261" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEid-5eLnGKVJsjZQpDl_P6jUXyw6kEm1qrUtU06_XrvEp71ixvgaAsUWeqBfX8Fs26G2dIRfLbSDlvZoeWjfyJ-8cQv4PqMrk8-uPqF7dyRkVcy7eK3SNbLN6-xqlxK3AZ0bRlDAAHyMOo/s640/inappropriate-uses-of-compressed-air-example.png" width="640" /></a></div><br />
The plant audit showed that the energy used to generate the compressed air averages 18 kW/100 cfm. The aggregate electric rate at the plant is $0.05 per kWh.<br />
<br />
<b>Annual savings = [kW per cfm] x [cfm savings] x [# of hours] x [$ per kWh]</b><br />
<br />
<br />
= 18/100 x [(150 x 6,500) + (1,000 x 5,000) + (800 x 3,500)<br />
+ (750 x 3,500)] x $0.05<br />
= <b>$102,600</b><br />
<br />
<u><b>Net savings:</b></u><br />
Calculate electric energy costs for the motor-driven vacuum pump, fans, and actuators, and subtract these costs from the annual savings calculated to determine the net savings. Note that there will be a one-time cost of installation for the added equipment.<br />
<br />
Source: <a href="http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air2.pdf">http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air2.pdf</a><div class="blogger-post-footer"><br/><br/>
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<br />
<blockquote><i><span style="font-size: large;">"When inlet air is cooler, it is also denser. As a result, mass flow and pressure capability increase with decreasing intake air temperatures, particularly in centrifugal compressors."</span></i></blockquote><br />
This mass flow increase effect is less pronounced for lubricant-injected, rotary-screw compressors because the incoming air mixes with the higher temperature lubricant. Conversely, as the temperature of intake air increases, the air density decreases and mass flow and pressure capability decrease. The resulting reduction in capacity is often addressed by operating additional compressors, thus increasing energy consumption.<br />
<br />
To prevent adverse effects from <i>intake air quality</i>, it is important to ensure that the location of the entry to the inlet pipe is as free as possible from ambient contami-nants, such as rain, dirt, and discharge from a cooling tower. If the air is drawn from a remote location, the inlet pipe size should be increased in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendation to prevent pressure drop and reduction of mass flow. All intake air should be adequately filtered. A pressure gauge indicating pressure drop in inches of water is essential to maintain optimum compressor performance.<br />
<br />
When an intake air filter is located at the compressor, the ambient temperature should be kept to a minimum, to prevent reduction in mass flow. This can be accomplished by locating the inlet pipe outside the room or building. When the intake air filter is located outside the building, and particularly on a roof, ambient considerations are important, but may be less important than accessibility for maintenance in inclement or winter conditions.<br />
<br />
<u><b>How to Select an Intake Air Filter</b></u><br />
A compressor intake air filter should be installed in, or have air brought to it from a clean, cool location. The compressor manufacturer normally supplies, or recom-mends, a specific grade of intake filter designed to protect the compressor. The better the filtration at the compressor inlet, the lower the maintenance at the compressor. However, the pressure drop across the intake air filter should be kept to a minimum (by size and by maintenance) to prevent a throttling effect and a reduction in compressor capacity. A pressure differential gauge is one of the best tools to monitor the condition of the inlet filter. The pressure drop across a new inlet filter should not exceed 3 pounds per square inch (psi).<br />
<br />
<u><b>Inlet Filter Replacement</b></u><br />
As a compressor intake air filter becomes dirty, the pressure drop across it increases, reducing the pressure at the air end inlet and increasing the compression ratios. The cost of this loss of air can be much greater than the cost of a replacement inlet fi lter, even over a short period of time. For a 200 horsepower (hp) compressor operating two shifts, 5 days a week (4,160 hours per year) with a $0.05/kilowatt hour (kWh)<br />
electricity rate, a dirty intake filter can decrease compressor efficiency by 1%–3%, which can translate into higher compressed air energy costs of between $327 and $980 per year.<br />
<br />
Source: <a href="http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air14.pdf">http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air14.pdf</a><div class="blogger-post-footer"><br/><br/>
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<br />
<u>Level of Air Quality:</u> Plant Air<br />
<u>Applications:</u> Air tools, general plant air<br />
<br />
<u>Level of Air Quality:</u> Instrument Air<br />
<u>Applications:</u> Laboratories, paint spraying, powder coating, climate control<br />
<br />
<u>Level of Air Quality:</u> Process Air<br />
<u>Applications:</u> Food and pharmaceutical process air, electronics<br />
<br />
<u>Level of Air Quality:</u> Breathing Air<u> </u><br />
<u>Applications:</u> Hospital air systems, diving tank refill stations, respirators for cleaning and/or grit blasting<br />
<br />
<u><b>Compressed Air Contaminants</b></u><br />
<i>Compressed air contaminants</i> can be in the form of solids, liquids, or vapors. Contaminants can enter a <i>compressed air system</i> at the compressor intake, or can be introduced into the air stream by the system itself.<br />
<br />
<i>Air quality class</i> is determined by the maximum particle size, pressure dewpoint, and maximum oil content allowed. For more information, see ISO 8573-1 Compressed Air Quality Classes in the Compressed Air System Best Practices Manual. (See references in sidebar). <br />
<br />
One of the main factors in determining air quality is whether lubricant-free air is required. Lubricant-free air can be produced either by using lubricant-free compressors, or with lubricant-injected compressors and additional air treatment equipment. The following factors can help one decide whether lubricant-free or lubricant-injected air is appropriate:<br />
<ul><li>If only one end use requires lubricant-free air, only the air supply to it should be treated to obtain the necessary air quality. Alternatively, it may be supplied by its own lubricant-free compressor. If the end uses in a plant require different levels of air quality, it may be advisable to divide the plant into different sections so that air treatment equipment that produces higher quality air is dedicated to the end uses that require the higher level of compressed air purification.</li>
<li>Lubricant-free rotary screw and reciprocating compressors usually have higher initial costs, lower efficiency, and higher maintenance costs than lubricant-injected compressors. However, the additional separation, filtration, and drying equipment required by lubricant-injected compressors will generally cause some reduction in system efficiency, particularly if the system is not properly maintained.</li>
</ul>Careful consideration should be given to the specifi c end use for the lubricant-free air, including the risks and costs associated with product contamination before selecting a lubricant-free or lubricant-injected compressor. Centrifugal compressors also offer an alternative for plants whose end uses require lubricant-free air.<br />
<br />
Source: <a href="http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air5.pdf">http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air5.pdf</a><div class="blogger-post-footer"><br/><br/>
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<br />
Compressed air is one of the most expensive sources of energy in a plant. The over-all efficiency of a typical compressed air system can be as low as 10%-15%. For example, to operate a 1-horsepower (hp) air motor at 100 pounds per square inchgauge (psig), approximately 7-8 hp of electrical power is supplied to the air compressor. To calculate the cost of compressed air in your facility, use the formula shown below:<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyzZcvzwqa9nlm2nTzWsuylZtw7xzVoCzj-89meZjuofKzh4AYaRt68F6DJyRcnmTZpFmrfXe1I2M1d_KSfLK_KshTsuBjkQ8ZXFtB8LBpl4f1grYXEIeVxkhaBYGIc8N4XX3yVZNAybk/s1600/compressed-air-costing-formula.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="95" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyzZcvzwqa9nlm2nTzWsuylZtw7xzVoCzj-89meZjuofKzh4AYaRt68F6DJyRcnmTZpFmrfXe1I2M1d_KSfLK_KshTsuBjkQ8ZXFtB8LBpl4f1grYXEIeVxkhaBYGIc8N4XX3yVZNAybk/s640/compressed-air-costing-formula.png" width="640" /></a></div><u>Where:</u><br />
<b>bhp:</b> Motor full-load horsepower (frequently higher than the motor nameplate horsepower—check equipment specification)<br />
<b>0.746:</b> conversion between hp and kW<br />
<b>Percent time:</b> percentage of time running at this operating level<br />
<b>Percent full-load bhp:</b> bhp as percentage of full-load bhp at this operating level<br />
<b>Motor efficiency:</b> motor efficiency at this operating level<br />
<br />
<u><b>Example</b></u><br />
A typical manufacturing facility has a 200-hp compressor (which requires 215 bhp) that operates for 6800 hours annually. It is fully loaded 85% of the time (motor efficiency = .95) and unloaded the rest of the time (25% full-load bhp and motor efficiency = .90). The aggregate electric rate is $0.05/kWh.<br />
<br />
<b>Cost when fully loaded</b> =<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXJRqF4EXxMBjXY6BIp5f2MP8GwabWy3jtOZsp41dA06_MynVb2VkvZCLPzs8ggbqTRdB59PAl93Hpsy-CTIZbIRvMNDkPIPYaj1F0l8XrN5gV6r1h9gaxptTXkOk-jzp0osidqbSInNA/s1600/compressed-air-cost-when-fully-loaded-example.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXJRqF4EXxMBjXY6BIp5f2MP8GwabWy3jtOZsp41dA06_MynVb2VkvZCLPzs8ggbqTRdB59PAl93Hpsy-CTIZbIRvMNDkPIPYaj1F0l8XrN5gV6r1h9gaxptTXkOk-jzp0osidqbSInNA/s1600/compressed-air-cost-when-fully-loaded-example.png" /></a></div><br />
<b>Cost when fully unloaded</b> =<br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj1s86DaGqHE_7BvDH7oixgSz5El3Zpo4FMsPwqXrS712WSoFiStQbYCZoHqUFCZDIkoe40-mQg1QL4ctmqM7CXDtxKkQP7Mk-cN59EIXyCmraa92fgFgxzpPS41HyP9MrhqOetSH9WScg/s1600/compressed-air-cost-when-fully-unloaded-example.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj1s86DaGqHE_7BvDH7oixgSz5El3Zpo4FMsPwqXrS712WSoFiStQbYCZoHqUFCZDIkoe40-mQg1QL4ctmqM7CXDtxKkQP7Mk-cN59EIXyCmraa92fgFgxzpPS41HyP9MrhqOetSH9WScg/s1600/compressed-air-cost-when-fully-unloaded-example.png" /></a></div><br />
<b>Annual energy cost</b> = $48,792 + $2,272 = <b>$51,064</b><br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcPL7ykU84gvAqsWyLqCDr_k3S9aqbbiCjTbYhnkAecVEbbfqsHSffIhTRO7E6b-wqQI2_V4fGzuzFO28u9Z3RFHiTbIcAQa-1Ot-1ttpTLxxD22PZtMRjSsLPruBJhWgkt0FtsiEiyYc/s1600/compressed-air-cost-lifetime-example.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="255" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcPL7ykU84gvAqsWyLqCDr_k3S9aqbbiCjTbYhnkAecVEbbfqsHSffIhTRO7E6b-wqQI2_V4fGzuzFO28u9Z3RFHiTbIcAQa-1Ot-1ttpTLxxD22PZtMRjSsLPruBJhWgkt0FtsiEiyYc/s320/compressed-air-cost-lifetime-example.png" width="320" /></a></div><b>Typical Lifetime Compressed Air Costs in Perspective—Costs Over 10 Years</b><br />
Assumptions in this example include a 75-hp compressor operated two shifts a day, 5 days a week at an aggregate electric rate of $0.05/kWh over 10 years of equipment life.<br />
<br />
Source: <a href="http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air1.pdf">http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air1.pdf</a><div class="blogger-post-footer"><br/><br/>
<a href="http://air-compressors-info.blogspot.com/">Read more articles at http://air-compressors-info.blogspot.com/</a></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4925763693880933533.post-25978596149208764272011-03-16T16:17:00.008+07:002011-03-16T16:17:00.129+07:00Compressed Air System Control Strategies<span style="font-size: large;"><b><i>Improving and maintaining compressed air system performance</i></b></span> requires not only addressing individual components, but also analyzing both the supply and demand sides of the system and how they interact, especially during periods of peak demand. This practice is often referred to as taking a systems approach because the focus is shifted away from components to <i>total system performance</i>.<br />
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<u><b>Matching Supply with Demand</b></u><br />
With compressed air systems, system dynamics (changes in demand over time) are especially important. Using controls, storage, and demand management to effectively design a system that meets peak requirements but also operates efficiently at part-load is key to a high performance compressed air system. In many systems, compressor controls are not coordinated to meet the demand requirements, which can result in compressors operating in conflict with each other, short-cycling, or blowing off—all signs of inefficient system operation.<br />
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<u><b>Individual Compressor Controls</b></u><br />
Over the years, compressor manufacturers have developed a number of different types of control strategies. Controls such as start/stop and load/unload respond to reductions in air demand by turning the compressor off or unloading it so that it does not deliver air for periods of time. Modulating inlet and multi-step controls allow the compressor to operate at part-load and deliver a reduced amount of air during periods of reduced demand. Variable speed controls reduce the speed of the compressor in low demand periods. Compressors running at part-load are generally less efficient than when they are run at full-load.<br />
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<u><b>Multiple Compressor Controls</b></u><br />
Systems with multiple compressors should use more sophisticated controls to orchestrate compressor operation and air delivery to the system. Network controls use the on-board compressor controls’ microprocessors linked together to form a chain of communication that makes decisions to stop/start, load/unload, modulate, and vary displacement and speed. Usually, one compressor assumes the lead role with the others being subordinate to the commands from this compressor. System master controls coordinate all of the functions necessary to optimize compressed air as a utility. System master controls have many functional capabilities, including the ability to monitor and control all components in the system, as well as trending data, to enhance maintenance functions and minimize costs of operation. Most multiple compressor controls operate the appropriate number of compressors at full-load and have one compressor trimming (running at part-load) to match supply with demand.<br />
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<u><b>Pressure/Flow Controllers</b></u><br />
Pressure/Flow Controllers (<i>P/FC</i>) are system pressure controls that can be used in conjunction with the individual and multiple compressor controls described above. A P/FC does not directly control a compressor and is generally not part of a compressor package. A P/FC is a device that serves to separate the supply side of a compressor system from the demand side, and requires the use of storage. Controlled storage can be used to address intermittent loads, which can affect system pressure and reliability. The goal is to deliver compressed air at the lowest stable pressure to the main plant distribution system and to support transient events as much as possible with stored compressed air. In general, a highly variable demand load will require a more sophisticated control strategy to maintain stable system pressure than a consistent, steady demand load.<br />
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Source: <a href="http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air7.pdf">http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air7.pdf</a><div class="blogger-post-footer"><br/><br/>
<a href="http://air-compressors-info.blogspot.com/">Read more articles at http://air-compressors-info.blogspot.com/</a></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4925763693880933533.post-13760510283122040512011-03-14T16:02:00.002+07:002011-03-14T16:02:00.111+07:00Compressed Air Storage Strategies<i><span style="font-size: large;">Compressed air storage</span></i> can allow a compressed air system to meet its <i>peak demand</i> needs and help control system pressure without starting additional compressors. The appropriate type and quantity of air storage depends on air demand patterns, air quantity and quality required, and the compressor and type of controls being used. An optimal air storage strategy will enable a compressed air system to provide enough air to satisfy temporary air demand events while minimizing compressor use and pressure.<br />
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The use of <i>air receivers</i> is especially effective for systems with shifting air demand patterns. When air demand patterns are variable, a large air receiver can provide enough stored air so that a system can be served by a small compressor and can allow the capacity control system to operate more effectively. For systems having a compressor operating in modulation to support intermittent demand events, storage may allow such a compressor to be turned off. By preventing pressure decay due to demand events, storage can protect critical end-use applications and prevent addi-tional units from coming online.<br />
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Air entering a storage receiver needs to be at a higher pressure level than the system pressure. A good air storage strategy will allow the differential between these two pressure levels to be sustained. To accomplish such a pressure differential, two types of devices can be employed: Pressure/Flow Controllers (P/FC) and metering valves.<br />
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A P/FC is a device that serves to separate the supply side of a compressed air system from the demand side. In a system that employs P/FCs, the compressors generally operate at or near design discharge pressure to ensure that the P/FC receives air at a higher pressure level than it will discharge into the system. This allows the pressure in the demand side to be reduced to a stable level that minimizes actual <i>compressed air consumption</i>. P/FCs are added after the primary receiver to maintain a reduced and relatively constant system pressure at points of use, while allowing the compressor controls to function in the most efficient control mode and discharge pressure range. Properly applied, a P/FC can yield significant energy savings in a system with a variable demand load. See Figure 1.<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgby5-LVM-6gr5bMGAuAoT8njiibFnErRisPBOYPhreFEQC7EftGd9T3L9Eu3mv7vSDUWofGn4HJK-22GJL3Es7vlXyz0yGfmKbDsfjx9VGONSSKCXKrWQzvHt1xZGb2F8TkAUb0vCzqLk/s1600/compressed-air-system-with-pressure-flow-controller.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgby5-LVM-6gr5bMGAuAoT8njiibFnErRisPBOYPhreFEQC7EftGd9T3L9Eu3mv7vSDUWofGn4HJK-22GJL3Es7vlXyz0yGfmKbDsfjx9VGONSSKCXKrWQzvHt1xZGb2F8TkAUb0vCzqLk/s1600/compressed-air-system-with-pressure-flow-controller.png" /></a></div><br />
For situations in which just one or a few applications have intermittent air demand, a correctly-sized storage receiver close to the point of the intermittent demand with a check valve and a metering valve can be an effective and lower cost alternative. For this type of storage strategy, a check valve and a tapered plug or needle valve are installed upstream of the receiver. The check valve will maintain receiver pressure at the maximum system pressure; the plug or needle valve will meter the flow of compressed air to “slow fill” the receiver during the interval between demand events. This will have the effect of reducing the large intermittent requirement into a much smaller average demand. See Figure 2.<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidzgw7q2PdQVz3VsVTteCfbTqFFZZ34b1qEHE2I-0veKqGYyfM29UfWZuH63ocfVwWB1gNL7Wz273PI7G84HBQZUk_0QdEA5OQkRBKlwgMld0Obwn0D_ggComLAUP7FiJIRpSfpiH1iu0/s1600/compressed-air-system-with-check-and-needle-valves.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidzgw7q2PdQVz3VsVTteCfbTqFFZZ34b1qEHE2I-0veKqGYyfM29UfWZuH63ocfVwWB1gNL7Wz273PI7G84HBQZUk_0QdEA5OQkRBKlwgMld0Obwn0D_ggComLAUP7FiJIRpSfpiH1iu0/s1600/compressed-air-system-with-check-and-needle-valves.png" /> </a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">Source: <a href="http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air9.pdf">http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air9.pdf</a> </div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><br/><br/>
<a href="http://air-compressors-info.blogspot.com/">Read more articles at http://air-compressors-info.blogspot.com/</a></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0